1. What is the Internet?

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The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers and devices that allows users to access and share information and devices, allowing them to communicate and exchange data. It enables users to access a wide range of services, such as websites, emails, social media, online applications, and cloud storage. Through standardized communication protocols, the Internet facilitates the sharing of information, resources, and media across vast distances, making it an essential tool for worldwide:
Education
Business
Entertainment
Personal Communication

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2. How is data transferred?

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Data is transferred by breaking it into small, addressable packets, which are then sent through a network via wired (like fiber optic cables) or wireless (like Wi-Fi) channels. Protocols such as TCP/IP govern this process, directing the packets using devices like routers to their destination, where they are reassembled into the original information. The speed and accuracy of this transfer depend on factors like bandwidth, network congestion, and the use of appropriate hardware and communication standards

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3. What is IP Address?

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An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique numerical label assigned to every device on a network, like the internet, that enables communication and data routing. It functions similarly to a postal address, allowing data packets to be sent and received by the correct destination on a network. There are two main versions, IPv4 and IPv6, with IPv6 offering a significantly larger address space to accommodate the growing number of internet-connected devices.

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4. How to access a website?

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Computers and their systems are difficult to approach, and it's made even more difficult when you need to understand two terms related to the subject that is already used in everyday English, Network, and internet will seem to be completely distinct from one another, but they will appear to be identical.
A network is a collection of one or more computers (Multiple devices, also known as hosts), that are connected via multiple channels for the purpose of sending and receiving data or media in a shared environment. The network can also include numerous devices/mediums that aid communication between two or more machines; these devices are known as Network devices and include routers, switches, hubs, and bridges, among others.
Internet is a collection of computers connected from all over the world. The Internet protocol suite is a framework described by the Internet standards. Methods are divided into a layered set of protocols in this architecture. The Internet offers a wide range of information and communication services, including forums, databases, email, and hypertext. It is made up of local to worldwide private, public networks linked by a variety of electronic, wireless, and networking technologies.

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5. Who assigns the IP Address?

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IP addresses are assigned hierarchically, beginning with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), which allocates blocks of addresses to Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) like APNIC or RIPE NCC. These RIRs then assign large blocks to Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and large organizations. Finally, your ISP assigns a public IP address to your router, and your router, acting as a DHCP server, assigns a private (local) IP address to each device within your home or office network.

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6. Concept of DNS

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The Domain Name System (DNS) is the phonebook of the Internet. Humans access information online through domain names, like nytimes.com or espn.com. Web browsers interact through Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. DNS translates domain names to IP addresses so browsers can load Internet resources.
Each device connected to the Internet has a unique IP address which other machines use to find the device. DNS servers eliminate the need for humans to memorize IP addresses such as 192.168.1.1 (in IPv4), or more complex newer alphanumeric IP addresses such as 2400:cb00:2048:1::c629:d7a2 (in IPv6).

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7. How does DNS work?

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The process of DNS resolution involves converting a hostname (such as www.example.com) into a computer-friendly IP address (such as 192.168.1.1). An IP address is given to each device on the Internet, and that address is necessary to find the appropriate Internet device - like a street address is used to find a particular home. When a user wants to load a webpage, a translation must occur between what a user types into their web browser (example.com) and the machine-friendly address necessary to locate the example.com webpage.
In order to understand the process behind the DNS resolution, it’s important to learn about the different hardware components a DNS query must pass between. For the web browser, the DNS lookup occurs "behind the scenes" and requires no interaction from the user’s computer apart from the initial request.

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8. Problems in Data Transfer and MAC Address

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Problems in data transfer related to MAC addresses include network access issues due to spoofing, lack of scalability for internet-wide communication, hardware dependency causing changes with new network cards, and security vulnerabilities from plain-text transmission. Proper MAC address management is critical for local network security and device identification, while IP addresses are used for broader internet routing

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9. What is Port Numbers?

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Port numbers are numerical identifiers (0-65535) that act as endpoints for network communication, directing traffic to specific applications or services on a device, similar to how an apartment number directs mail to a specific resident within a building. When a device receives data, the port number in the data packet, along with the IP address, specifies which program or service on that device should process the information, ensuring that different applications, like web browsing (port 80) or email (port 25), can run simultaneously without confusion.

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10. IPv4 and IPv6

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IPv4 and IPv6 are versions of the Internet Protocol (IP) that assign unique addresses to devices on a network, with IPv6 being the newer version designed to replace the limited address space of IPv4. The primary differences lie in address length (IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, IPv6 uses 128-bit), addressing format (IPv4 uses dotted-decimal notation, IPv6 uses hexadecimal groups), and features like improved routing efficiency, built-in security, and Quality of Service (QoS) in IPv6

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11. MAC Address Format

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To understand what is MAC address is, it is very important that first you understand the format of the MAC Address. So a MAC Address is a 12-digit hexadecimal number (48-bit binary number), which is mostly represented by Colon-Hexadecimal notation.
The First 6 digits (say 00:40:96) of the MAC Address identify the manufacturer, called the OUI (Organizational Unique Identifier). IEEE Registration Authority Committee assigns these MAC prefixes to its registered vendors.
Here are some OUI of well-known manufacturers:
CC:46:D6 - Cisco
3C:5A:B4 - Google, 3C:D9:2B - Hewlett Packard
00:9A:CD - HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO.,LTD

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12. Port Number Format

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A "port number format" depends on its purpose, but for mobile number portability, it is the text "PORT" followed by a space and your 10-digit mobile number, sent as an SMS to 1900. In contrast, a network port number format is a two-byte, 16-bit integer ranging from 0 to 65535, where a specific number represents a service like port 80 for HTTP.

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13. Local Area Network, Switch & Router

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A Local Area Network (LAN) is a small, private network connecting devices like computers and printers within a limited area, such as a home or office. A network switch connects multiple devices within a single LAN, using MAC addresses to send data directly to the intended device. A router connects a LAN to other networks or the internet, using IP addresses to intelligently route data packets across different networks

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14. Public and Private Addresses

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Public IP addresses are unique, globally identifiable IP addresses provided by an ISP and used for internet-wide communication. Private IP addresses are used within a local network (like a home or office) and are not directly accessible from the internet, with the same private IP address being reusable across many different local networks. A router uses Network Address Translation (NAT) to allow devices with private IP addresses to access the internet by substituting their private IP with the router's public IP.

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15. Modern Routers

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A modern router is a networking device that connects multiple networks, such as your home Local Area Network (LAN) to the wider Internet (WAN), by forwarding data packets to their correct IP addresses. Beyond simply sending data, modern routers also provide advanced features like Wi-Fi connectivity, security protocols, simplified mobile app-based management, and even integrated modem functionality for easier internet access

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16. What is a VPN?

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A VPN (Virtual Private Network) is an internet security service that creates a secure, encrypted "tunnel" for your online traffic, hiding your real IP address and location to protect your privacy and data. It works by routing your internet connection through a remote VPN server, encrypting your data along the way, which makes it difficult for others to track your activities, steal information, or bypass geo-restrictions

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17. What is Web Development?

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Web development is the process of creating and maintaining websites and web applications that run online, encompassing tasks from designing the user interface to coding functionality and managing databases. It involves various aspects such as front-end development (what users see and interact with) and back-end development (the server, database, and application logic), and uses coding languages like HTML, CSS, and JavaScript to bring designs to life and ensure smooth performance.

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18. What is the MERN Stack?

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The MERN stack is a collection of four open-source JavaScript technologies—MongoDB, Express.js, React, and Node.js—used by developers to build complete, dynamic, and scalable web applications from the frontend to the backend. It offers a full-stack JavaScript development experience, allowing for efficient data handling and robust, user-friendly interfaces.

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19. Who is a Full-Stack Developer?

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A full stack developer is a software developer who can handle all aspects of an application's development, from the user interface (front-end) to the server-side logic and databases (back-end). They are versatile professionals with a wide range of skills, including front-end technologies like HTML, CSS, and JavaScript, back-end languages such as Python or Node.js, various database systems, and essential development tools like Git. This holistic understanding allows them to manage the entire development process, from conceptualization to deployment and maintenance.

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1. What is HTML?

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HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language and is the core language for creating web pages, structuring content like text, images, and links using tags. It's a markup language, not a programming language, that provides a standard way for browsers to understand and display the content and layout of a web page. HTML forms the fundamental backbone of the internet, working alongside CSS for styling and JavaScript for interactivity.

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2. World's First Website

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The world's first website was launched by Sir Tim Berners-Lee at CERN and was hosted at the address http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html. Launched on August 6, 1991, this first website provided information about the World Wide Web (WWW) project itself, including details on how to create web pages and learn about hypertext. It ran on a NeXT computer at CERN and featured the basic concepts that defined the Web.

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3. The Concept of Hyperlinks

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A hyperlink is an element in an HTML document. Hypertext is text with hyperlinks. The linked text (the reference to data) is called anchor text. You use anchor tags to create hyperlinks to other webpages. They create links: a clickable text or image that, when clicked, takes us to a new page or to a different part of the same page. HTML consists of hyperlinks. They are an essential and defining feature of the World Wide Web, and they're what has made the Web so successful. They enabled the very idea of browsing. They give us the ability to connect a document to another document across different computers and networks. The idea initially originated from scolarly referencing and footnotes in scientific documents, but this lead to the discoverability of other people's websites as time went on. Users could click between the pages of not only one author's website, but through to other authors' websites and move from one webpage to another. Anything could link to anything else, making navigating to different places on the Web easy. And this provided users with wider access to information. The World Wide Web is made up of trillions of hyperlinks linking trillions of webpages to each other, creating something that could resemble a very large spider web.

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4. What is a Markup Language?

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A markup language is a system for annotating text with codes or tags to define its structure and presentation, enabling computers and software to correctly interpret, display, and process content. Unlike programming languages that perform actions, markup languages describe the meaning of content, making it useful for creating web pages (HTML), storing data (XML), or creating structured documents (Markdown)

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5. Installing & Setting Up a Code Editor

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installation of Visual Studio Code
Download and Install. Visit the official VS Code website and download the version suitable for your operating system. ...
Launching VS Code. After installation, launch VS Code. ...
Choosing a Theme. ...
Customizing Settings. ...
Keybindings. ...
Installing Extensions. ...
Install Git. ...
Configure Git in VS Code.

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6. Creating Your First Webpage

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Creating a basic web page using HTML involves writing code in a text editor and saving it with an .html extension. Here's a step-by-step guide:
1. Choose a Code Editor:
While you can use a simple text editor like Notepad (Windows) or TextEdit (macOS), dedicated code editors like Visual Studio Code, Sublime Text, or Atom offer features like syntax highlighting and auto-completion, which improve the coding experience.
2. Create a New HTML File:
Open your chosen code editor.
Create a new file.
Save the file with a .html extension (e.g., index.html). This tells the browser to interpret the file as an HTML document.
3. Write the Basic HTML Structure:
All HTML documents follow a fundamental structure. Copy and paste this basic template into your index.html

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7. Understanding Tags

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HTML (HyperText Markup Language) is the standard markup language used to create the structure and layout of web pages. HTML documents consist of a series of elements, and these elements are defined using HTML tags. HTML tags are essential building blocks that define the structure and content of a webpage. In this article, we'll explore what HTML tags are, how they work, and provide detailed examples of common HTML tags.

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8. The Heading Tag

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An HTML heading tag (or header tag) is used to define headings and subheadings on a web page, creating a hierarchical structure for content from h1 to h6. h1 is the most important for the main page title, while h2 through h6 denote decreasing levels of importance for subtopics. Proper use of these semantic tags improves website readability, navigability for users, and search engine optimization (SEO)

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9. The Paragraph Tag

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The p tag in HTML represents a paragraph. It is a fundamental element used to structure and display blocks of text on a web page.

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10. What is an Element?

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An HTML element is a fundamental building block of an HTML document, defining the structure, content, and sometimes the presentation of a webpage. It represents a component of the document that a web browser interprets and displays.

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11. Horizontal Rule

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In HTML, a horizontal rule is represented by the hr tag. This tag creates a thematic break or a visual horizontal line to separate content sections within a webpage.

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12. Line Break

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To create a line break in HTML, the br tag is used. This tag is a self-closing element, meaning it does not require a separate closing tag.

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13. Introduction to HTML Lists

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We encounter lists during multiple situations on a daily basis. Lists are useful for many things, including grocery shopping and creating a daily routine. Similar instances can be found on websites. The HTML lists utility assists us in creating lists on websites.

There are mainly three types of lists in HTML:

Ordered list
Unordered list
Description list

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14. Adding Comments in HTML

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Comments begin with . The text placed between these tags will be ignored by the web browser and will not be displayed on the webpage. Comments are primarily used for documentation purposes, such as explaining complex code sections, leaving reminders for yourself or other developers, or temporarily hiding content during development.

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15. Adding Images

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The img tag is used to embed an image in an HTML page. Images are not technically inserted into a web page; images are linked to web pages. The img tag creates a holding space for the referenced image.

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1.1. Nested List (Example 1)

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A nested list is a list that contains one or more other lists as its elements, creating a hierarchical structure of data. This concept is used in various contexts, such as HTML to structure content, and programming languages like Python to build complex data types like matrices or to group related sub-items within a larger list.

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1.2. Nested List (Example 2)

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1.3. Nested List (Example 3)

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1.4. Nested List (Example 4)

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1.5. Nested List (Example 5)

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1.6. Homework 1 & 2

2. Introduction to HTML Tables

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A table is a structured set of data made up of rows and columns (tabular data). A table allows you to quickly and easily look up values that indicate some kind of connection between different types of data, for example a person and their age, or a day of the week, or the timetable for a local swimming pool.

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2.1. Table Example 1

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2.2.Table Example 2

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2.3. Table Example 3

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2.4. Table Example 4

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2.5. Table Example 5

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2.6. Table Homework

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1. Understanding File Paths

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If your index.html file needs to display an image named logo.png, how does the HTML file tell the browser where to **find** logo.png?
You can't just say src="logo.png" and expect it to work every time. What if the logo is in an images folder? What if it's on a completely different website?
The browser needs an exact, unambiguous address to locate the file. **A file path is that address.**

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2. Types of File Paths

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The two main types of file paths are Absolute Paths and Relative Paths.

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3. Relative Path

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A relative file path gives directions to a file starting from the location of the file you are currently in. You will use this 99% of the time for linking your own files together (images, CSS, other HTML pages).

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4. Absolute Path

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An absolute file path gives the full, complete URL to a resource on the web. It starts with http:// or https://.

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5. Boilerplate Code

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The solution is to create a standard, universal starting template—a **boilerplate**. This is a block of code that you will start every single HTML file with. It's not something you need to reinvent each time; you just copy-paste it and fill in the blanks.
It's the "blueprint of the house" that you need before you can start putting in the walls (h1) and windows (img).

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6. div tag

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The most basic solution is to invent a generic, **meaningless** container. Its only job is to be a box that you can put other things into. It shouldn't have any inherent meaning or style; it's just a grouping mechanism.
This is the **div** (short for "division").
By wrapping our elements in a div, we create a single "box" that we can now control.

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7. class & id

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The logical solution is to invent two types of labels (which we call **attributes**) that you can add to any HTML tag.
1. **A Unique Identifier:** We need a label for one, and only one, specific element on the entire page. It must be unique. This is perfect for major, one-of-a-kind layout sections like the main navigation bar or a search form. This is the **id**.
2. **A Reusable Classifier:** We also need a label that we can apply to *multiple* elements to group them into a category. This is for things that have a similar style or function, like all the profile cards, all the error messages, or all the "buy now" buttons. This is the **class**.

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8. Header, Main & Footer

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- **header**: This is the box for the introductory content at the top of your page or a section. It typically contains your logo, site navigation (nav), and main heading.
- **footer**: The box for the closing content at the bottom. It usually contains copyright info, contact details, and secondary links.
- **main**: This is the most important one. It defines the **main, unique content** of that specific page. It should not contain things that are repeated on every page (like the header or footer). There should only be **one** main tag per page.

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1. What is an HTML Form?

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The fundamental truth is that a website isn't just a brochure for you to read. For the web to be useful, it needs a way to **collect information *from* the user** and send it back to the server.
Without this, you couldn't log in, search for a video, buy a product, post a comment, or send a message. The web would be a read-only library.

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2. input Tag

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This is the most common form tag. It's a self-closing tag that creates an input field. Its behavior changes based on its type attribute.
The most basic type is text.

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3. label Tag

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**The Problem:** We have a box, but the user has no idea what they are supposed to type into it. Is it for a name? An email? A search query? The box is meaningless without a description.

**The Solution:** We need to add a descriptive piece of text. The correct HTML tag for this is the label. It's a tag specifically designed to be the title for a form field.

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4. Name & Value Attributes

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**The Problem:** When the form is submitted, the browser needs to package the data to send to a server. How does it label the data? If a user types "Arjun" in the first box, how does the server know that "Arjun" is the firstName? The id attribute is only for use *within* the page; it is not sent to the server.

**The Solution:** We need another attribute whose sole purpose is to be the **"data label"** or the **"key"** for the submitted value. This is the **name** attribute.

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5. Radio Buttons

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**The Problem:** What if you want to ask a question where the user can only choose **one option** from a predefined list? For example, "What is your gender?" or "What is your T-shirt size (Small, Medium, Large)?" A text box is a bad solution—users could type anything ("Med", "M", "medium"), making the data inconsistent.

**The Solution:** We need an input type where selecting one option automatically de-selects all others. This is the **radio button**: .

This introduces a new rule. How does the browser know which radio buttons belong to the same question?

**The Rule:** All radio buttons in a single group **must share the same name attribute**. The name acts as the group identifier.

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6. checkboxes

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**The Problem:** Now, what if you want to ask a question where the user can choose **multiple options**? For example, "Which toppings would you like on your pizza?" A radio button won't work, because you can only select one.

**The Solution:** We need an input type that allows for multiple selections. This is the **checkbox**: input type="checkbox".

Checkboxes that are part of the same question should also share the same name. This tells the server that all the selected values belong to the same category ("toppings").

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7. Mini Project

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8. button Tag

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**The Problem:** Our  works, but it's very limited. You can only put plain text in it using the value attribute. What if you want a button with an image, or with bold text?

**The Solution:** Use the  element. It's a container tag, meaning it has an opening and closing tag. This allows you to put other HTML elements *inside* it.

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9. textarea Tag

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**The Problem:** Our input type="text" is great for single lines of text like a name, but it's terrible for longer input, like a user comment or a shipping address. The text just scrolls sideways and becomes unreadable.

**The Solution:** We need a dedicated element for multi-line text input. This is the **textarea** tag.

Unlike input, textarea is a container tag (it has an opening and closing tag). It's also linked to a label using the same for and id pattern.

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10. Homework

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1. Media Tag

📖 For Notes click here

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2. Creating Copyright Symbol

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3. Media Tag

📖 For Notes click here

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